Before 2020, the largest vision and language models had similar training compute. After that, language models rapidly scaled to use more training compute, driven by the success of transformer-based architectures. Standalone vision models never caught up. Instead, the largest models have recently become multimodal, integrating vision and other modalities into large models such as GPT-4 and Gemini.
| Series | Model | Domain | Training compute (FLOP) | Organization | Publication date |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Language | RNN LM | Language | 5.4e+16 | Johns Hopkins University | 2010-09-26 |
| Language | LSTM LM | Language | 1.7e+16 | RWTH Aachen University | 2012-09-09 |
| Language | DistBelief NNLM | Language | 2.6e+18 | 2013-01-16 | |
| Language | RCTM | Language | 9.3e+15 | University of Oxford | 2013-10-01 |
| Language | RNTN | Language | 1.4e+16 | Stanford University | 2013-10-01 |
| Language | Word2Vec (large) | Language | 3.9e+16 | 2013-10-16 | |
| Language | TransE | Language | 1.3e+18 | 2013-12-05 | |
| Language | RNNsearch-50* | Language | 1.6e+18 | 2014-09-01 | |
| Language | Seq2Seq LSTM | Language | 5.6e+19 | 2014-09-10 | |
| Language | SPN-4+KN5 | Language | 4.4e+16 | 2014-09-14 | |
| Language | SNM-skip | Language | 3.0e+20 | 2014-12-03 | |
| Language | genCNN + dyn eval | Language | 3.4e+16 | 2015-03-17 | |
| Language | Variational (untied weights, MC) LSTM (Large) | Language | 5.9e+15 | University of Cambridge | 2015-12-16 |
| Language | Named Entity Recognition model | Language | 9.7e+16 | Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) | 2016-03-04 |
| Language | GNMT | Language | 6.6e+21 | 2016-09-26 | |
| Language | Pointer Sentinel-LSTM (medium) | Language | 7.5e+15 | MetaMind Inc, Salesforce | 2016-09-26 |
| Language | VD-LSTM+REAL Large | Language | 2.1e+16 | Salesforce Research, Stanford University | 2016-11-04 |
| Language | NAS with base 8 and shared embeddings | Language | 1.0e+16 | Google Brain | 2016-11-05 |
| Language | BIDAF | Language | 3.5e+18 | 2016-11-05 | |
| Language | MoE-Multi | Language | 9.4e+19 | Jagiellonian University, Google Brain | 2017-01-23 |
| Language | Transformer | Language | 7.4e+18 | Google Research, Google Brain | 2017-06-12 |
| Language | ConvS2S (ensemble of 8 models) | Language | 5.6e+19 | Meta AI | 2017-07-25 |
| Language | Language | 3.0e+17 | Salesforce Research | 2017-08-07 | |
| Language | EI-REHN-1000D | Language | 1.1e+16 | 2017-08-14 | |
| Language | Language | 4.6e+17 | Ben-Gurion University of the Negev | 2017-08-29 | |
| Language | ISS | Language | 3.4e+15 | Duke University, Microsoft | 2017-09-15 |
| Language | AWD-LSTM+WT+Cache+IOG (WT2) | Language | 3.2e+15 | NTT Communication Science Laboratories | 2017-09-26 |
| Language | Fraternal dropout + AWD-LSTM 3-layer (WT2) | Language | 3.1e+17 | 2017-10-31 | |
| Language | AWD-LSTM-MoS + dynamic evaluation (WT2, 2017) | Language | 3.4e+18 | Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) | 2017-11-10 |
| Language | ELMo | Language | 3.3e+15 | 2018-02-01 | |
| Language | QRNN | Language | 6.9e+17 | Salesforce Research | 2018-02-01 |
| Language | 4 layer QRNN (h=2500) | Language | 5.9e+17 | Salesforce Research | 2018-03-22 |
| Language | Dropout-LSTM+Noise(Bernoulli) (WT2) | Language | 1.3e+17 | 2018-05-03 | |
| Language | aLSTM(depth-2)+RecurrentPolicy (WT2) | Language | 7.3e+16 | 2018-05-22 | |
| Language | GPT-1 | Language | 1.8e+19 | OpenAI | 2018-06-01 |
| Language | Big Transformer for Back-Translation | Language | 4.8e+20 | Facebook AI Research, Google Brain | 2018-08-28 |
| Language | (ensemble): AWD-LSTM-DOC (fin) × 5 (WT2) | Language | 6.7e+17 | 2018-08-30 | |
| Language | Transformer + Simple Recurrent Unit | Language | 1.1e+19 | 2018-09-17 | |
| Language | LSTM+NeuralCache | Language | 9.8e+14 | KU Leuven, ESAT - PSI, Apple | 2018-09-24 |
| Language | Transformer (Adaptive Input Embeddings) WT103 | Language | 4.5e+19 | Facebook AI Research | 2018-09-28 |
| Language | BERT-Large | Language | 2.8e+20 | 2018-10-11 | |
| Language | TrellisNet | Language | 2.8e+18 | 2018-10-15 | |
| Language | Language | 6.8e+19 | Google Brain | 2018-11-05 | |
| Language | Mesh-TensorFlow Transformer 4.9B (language) | Language | 1.6e+20 | Google Brain | 2018-11-05 |
| Language | Fine-tuned-AWD-LSTM-DOC (fin) | Language | 5.2e+16 | Samsung R&D Institute Russia | 2018-11-12 |
| Language | Multi-cell LSTM | Language | 2.0e+15 | University of Hyderabad | 2018-11-15 |
| Language | Transformer-XL (257M) | Language | 3.8e+20 | 2019-01-09 | |
| Language | GPT-2 (1.5B) | Language | 1.9e+21 | OpenAI | 2019-02-14 |
| Language | SciBERT | Language | 8.9e+19 | Allen Institute for AI | 2019-03-26 |
| Language | Cross-lingual alignment | Language | 2.6e+18 | 2019-04-04 | |
| Language | WeNet (Penn Treebank) | Language | 7.3e+17 | Amazon | 2019-04-08 |
| Language | BERT-Large-CAS (PTB+WT2+WT103) | Language | 1.5e+20 | Amazon | 2019-04-20 |
| Language | AWD-LSTM-DRILL + dynamic evaluation† (WT2) | Language | 4.1e+17 | IDIAP | 2019-05-14 |
| Language | XLNet | Language | 6.2e+21 | 2019-06-01 | |
| Language | Transformer-XL Large + Phrase Induction | Language | 3.8e+20 | 2019-06-04 | |
| Language | AWD-LSTM + MoS + Partial Shuffled | Language | 3.2e+17 | University of Texas at Austin | 2019-06-10 |
| Language | RoBERTa Large | Language | 8.5e+21 | Facebook, University of Washington | 2019-07-01 |
| Language | Megatron-LM (1.2B) | Language | 1.1e+22 | NVIDIA | 2019-09-17 |
| Language | Megatron-LM (8.3B) | Language | 9.1e+21 | NVIDIA | 2019-09-17 |
| Language | Megatron-BERT | Language | 2.2e+22 | NVIDIA | 2019-09-17 |
| Language | DistilBERT | Language | 1.2e+19 | Hugging Face | 2019-10-02 |
| Language | T5-3B | Language | 9.0e+21 | 2019-10-23 | |
| Language | T5-11B | Language | 3.3e+22 | 2019-10-23 | |
| Language | Base LM + kNN LM + Continuous Cache | Language | 3.1e+19 | Stanford University, Facebook AI Research | 2019-11-01 |
| Language | XLM-RoBERTa | Language | 2.1e+22 | Facebook AI | 2019-11-05 |
| Language | CamemBERT | Language | 8.3e+20 | Facebook, INRIA, Sorbonne University | 2019-11-10 |
| Language | Sandwich Transformer | Language | 2.4e+19 | Allen Institute for AI, Facebook AI Research | 2019-11-10 |
| Language | Transformer-XL DeFINE (141M) | Language | 1.7e+18 | 2019-11-27 | |
| Language | MMLSTM (WT-2) | Language | 1.9e+17 | 2019-12-05 | |
| Language | MMLSTM (PTB) | Language | 5.8e+16 | 2019-12-05 | |
| Language | Meena | Language | 1.1e+23 | Google Brain | 2020-01-28 |
| Language | TaLK Convolution | Language | 2.7e+19 | Carleton University | 2020-02-08 |
| Language | ALBERT-xxlarge | Language | 2.4e+21 | 2020-02-09 | |
| Language | Turing-NLG | Language | 1.6e+22 | Microsoft | 2020-02-13 |
| Language | Feedback Transformer | Language | 7.7e+18 | 2020-02-21 | |
| Language | TransformerXL + spectrum control | Language | 2.6e+19 | 2020-03-11 | |
| Language | Tensor-Transformer(1core)+PN (WT103) | Language | 1.6e+18 | University of California (UC) Berkeley | 2020-03-17 |
| Language | ELECTRA | Language | 3.1e+21 | Stanford University, Google, Google Brain | 2020-03-23 |
| Language | UnifiedQA | Language | 1.6e+19 | 2020-05-02 | |
| Language | GPT-3 175B (davinci) | Language | 3.1e+23 | OpenAI | 2020-05-28 |
| Language | GShard (dense) | Language | 4.8e+22 | 2020-06-30 | |
| Language | DeLighT | Language | 3.8e+18 | 2020-08-03 | |
| Language | ERNIE-GEN (large) | Language | 2.0e+20 | Baidu | 2020-08-06 |
| Language | LUKE | Language | 1.8e+22 | 2020-10-02 | |
| Language | mT5-XXL | Language | 8.2e+22 | Google, Google Research | 2020-10-20 |
| Language | German ELECTRA Large | Language | 1.4e+21 | deepset, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Muenchen | 2020-10-21 |
| Language | KEPLER | Language | 1.7e+21 | 2020-11-23 | |
| Language | CPM-Large | Language | 2.6e+20 | 2020-12-01 | |
| Language | DensePhrases | Language | 2.1e+18 | Korea University, Princeton University | 2020-12-23 |
| Language | CT-MoS (WT2) | Language | 5.4e+17 | Google, National Tsing Hua University | 2020-12-25 |
| Language | ERNIE-Doc (247M) | Language | 3.0e+19 | Baidu | 2020-12-31 |
| Language | Switch | Language | 8.2e+22 | 2021-01-11 | |
| Language | SRU++ Large | Language | 2.1e+19 | ASAPP | 2021-02-24 |
| Language | Generative BST | Language | 1.4e+22 | Facebook AI Research | 2021-03-05 |
| Language | PLUG | Language | 3.6e+22 | Alibaba | 2021-04-19 |
| Language | ByT5-XXL | Language | 8.1e+22 | Google, Google Research | 2021-05-28 |
| Language | EMDR | Language | 1.9e+21 | 2021-06-09 | |
| Language | DeBERTa | Language | 2.6e+22 | Microsoft | 2021-06-10 |
| Language | Adaptive Input Transformer + RD | Language | 8.6e+19 | Microsoft Research Asia, Soochow University | 2021-06-28 |
| Language | ERNIE 3.0 | Language | 2.2e+22 | Baidu | 2021-07-05 |
| Language | Codex | Language | 7.3e+22 | OpenAI | 2021-07-07 |
| Language | Jurassic-1-Jumbo | Language | 3.7e+23 | AI21 Labs | 2021-08-11 |
| Language | XLMR-XXL | Language | 3.4e+22 | Facebook AI Research | 2021-08-17 |
| Language | FLAN 137B | Language | 2.0e+24 | Google Research | 2021-09-03 |
| Language | PermuteFormer | Language | 2.8e+18 | Peking University | 2021-09-06 |
| Language | HyperCLOVA 204B | Language | 2.0e+23 | NAVER | 2021-09-10 |
| Language | PLATO-XL | Language | 9.9e+21 | Baidu | 2021-09-20 |
| Language | Turing ULRv5 | Language | 2.9e+22 | Microsoft | 2021-09-28 |
| Language | Megatron-Turing NLG 530B | Language | 8.6e+23 | Microsoft, NVIDIA | 2021-10-11 |
| Language | Yuan 1.0 | Language | 3.5e+23 | Inspur | 2021-10-12 |
| Language | base LM+GNN+kNN | Language | 5.3e+19 | 2021-10-17 | |
| Language | S4 | Language | 7.8e+19 | Stanford University | 2021-10-31 |
| Language | CodeT5-base | Language | 1.6e+21 | Salesforce, Nanyang Technological University | 2021-11-01 |
| Language | Gopher (280B) | Language | 6.3e+23 | DeepMind | 2021-12-08 |
| Language | GLaM | Language | 3.6e+23 | 2021-12-13 | |
| Language | Contriever | Language | 1.6e+20 | 2021-12-16 | |
| Language | XGLM-7.5B | Language | 2.2e+22 | Meta AI, Facebook AI Research | 2021-12-20 |
| Language | ERNIE 3.0 Titan | Language | 1.0e+24 | Baidu, Peng Cheng Laboratory | 2021-12-23 |
| Language | InstructGPT 175B | Language | 3.2e+23 | OpenAI | 2022-01-27 |
| Language | AlphaCode | Language | 2.4e+23 | DeepMind | 2022-02-02 |
| Language | RETRO-7B | Language | 1.7e+22 | DeepMind | 2022-02-07 |
| Language | GPT-NeoX-20B | Language | 9.3e+22 | EleutherAI | 2022-02-09 |
| Language | LaMDA | Language | 3.6e+23 | 2022-02-10 | |
| Language | ST-MoE | Language | 2.9e+23 | Google, Google Brain, Google Research | 2022-02-17 |
| Language | PolyCoder | Language | 1.1e+21 | Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) | 2022-02-26 |
| Language | Segatron-XL large, M=384 + HCP | Language | 2.6e+19 | Microsoft Research, University of Waterloo | 2022-03-21 |
| Language | Chinchilla | Language | 5.8e+23 | DeepMind | 2022-03-29 |
| Language | PaLM (540B) | Language | 2.5e+24 | Google Research | 2022-04-04 |
| Language | Sparse all-MLP | Language | 5.3e+20 | Meta AI | 2022-04-14 |
| Language | OPT-175B | Language | 4.3e+23 | Meta AI | 2022-05-02 |
| Language | UL2 | Language | 1.2e+23 | Google Research, Google Brain | 2022-05-10 |
| Language | Gato | Multimodal, Robotics, Games, Language | 4.0e+21 | DeepMind | 2022-05-12 |
| Language | GPT-2 Medium (FlashAttention) | Language | 8.9e+20 | Stanford University, University at Buffalo | 2022-05-27 |
| Language | DITTO | Language | 3.3e+18 | 2022-06-06 | |
| Language | Minerva (540B) | Language | 2.7e+24 | 2022-06-29 | |
| Language | CodeT5-large | Language | 2.7e+21 | Salesforce | 2022-07-05 |
| Language | NLLB | Language | 1.8e+22 | Meta AI | 2022-07-06 |
| Language | BLOOM-176B | Language | 3.7e+23 | Hugging Face, BigScience | 2022-07-11 |
| Language | AlexaTM 20B | Language | 2.0e+23 | Amazon | 2022-08-02 |
| Language | GLM-130B | Language | 3.5e+23 | Tsinghua University | 2022-08-04 |
| Language | BlenderBot 3 | Language | 4.3e+23 | 2022-08-10 | |
| Language | U-PaLM (540B) | Language | 2.5e+24 | 2022-10-20 | |
| Language | Flan-PaLM 540B | Language | 2.5e+24 | 2022-10-20 | |
| Language | Mogrifier RLSTM (WT2) | Language | 1.4e+17 | DeepMind | 2022-11-03 |
| Language | Galactica | Language, Biology | 3.2e+23 | Meta AI | 2022-11-16 |
| Language | Fusion in Encoder | Language | 1.3e+20 | Samsung | 2022-11-18 |
| Language | GPT-3.5 | Language | 2.6e+24 | OpenAI | 2022-11-28 |
| Language | Vega v2 | Language | 7.8e+22 | 2022-12-04 | |
| Language | Hybrid H3-2.7B | Language | 6.5e+21 | Stanford University, University at Buffalo | 2022-12-28 |
| Language | LLaMA-65B | Language | 5.5e+23 | Meta AI | 2023-02-24 |
| Language | Falcon-40B | Language | 2.4e+23 | Technology Innovation Institute | 2023-03-15 |
| Language | PanGu-Σ | Language | 4.7e+23 | Huawei Noah's Ark Lab | 2023-03-20 |
| Language | BloombergGPT | Language | 2.4e+23 | Bloomberg, Johns Hopkins University | 2023-03-30 |
| Language | Incoder-6.7B | Language | 3.0e+21 | 2023-04-09 | |
| Language | StarCoder | Language | 8.5e+22 | 2023-05-09 | |
| Language | PaLM 2 | Language | 7.3e+24 | 2023-05-10 | |
| Language | InternLM | Language | 1.0e+24 | Shanghai AI Lab, SenseTime | 2023-07-06 |
| Language | Claude 2 | Language | 3.9e+24 | Anthropic | 2023-07-11 |
| Language | Llama 2-7B | Language | 8.4e+22 | Meta AI | 2023-07-18 |
| Language | Llama 2-70B | Language | 8.1e+23 | Meta AI | 2023-07-18 |
| Language | Jais | Language | 4.9e+22 | 2023-08-29 | |
| Language | Falcon-180B | Language | 3.8e+24 | Technology Innovation Institute | 2023-09-06 |
| Language | Amazon Titan | Language, Image generation | 4.8e+24 | Amazon | 2023-09-28 |
| Language | FinGPT-13B | Language | 1.6e+23 | 2023-10-07 | |
| Language | CODEFUSION (Python) | Language | 7.9e+18 | Microsoft, Microsoft Research | 2023-10-26 |
| Language | Skywork-13B | Language | 2.5e+23 | Kunlun Inc. | 2023-10-30 |
| Language | Yi-34B | Language | 6.1e+23 | 01.AI | 2023-11-02 |
| Language | Grok-1 | Language | 2.9e+24 | xAI | 2023-11-04 |
| Language | Nemotron-3-8B | Language | 1.8e+23 | NVIDIA | 2023-11-15 |
| Language | Inflection-2 | Language | 1.0e+25 | Inflection AI | 2023-11-22 |
| Language | Qwen-72B | Language | 1.3e+24 | Alibaba | 2023-11-30 |
| Language | Llama Guard | Language | 1.6e+23 | Meta AI | 2023-12-07 |
| Language | Mixtral 8x7B | Language | 7.7e+23 | Mistral AI | 2023-12-11 |
| Language | FunSearch | Language, Search | 3.9e+23 | Google DeepMind | 2023-12-14 |
| Language | nekomata-14b | Language | 2.6e+23 | rinna | 2023-12-21 |
| Language | Qwen1.5-72B | Language | 1.3e+24 | Alibaba | 2024-02-04 |
| Language | Gemini 1.5 Pro | Language, Multimodal | 1.6e+25 | Google DeepMind | 2024-02-15 |
| Language | MegaScale (Production) | Language | 3.9e+24 | ByteDance, Peking University | 2024-02-23 |
| Language | Mistral Large | Language | 1.1e+25 | Mistral AI | 2024-02-26 |
| Language | Aramco Metabrain AI | Language | 1.0e+25 | Saudi Aramco | 2024-03-04 |
| Language | Inflection-2.5 | Language | 8.0e+24 | Inflection AI | 2024-03-07 |
| Language | DBRX | Language | 2.6e+24 | Databricks | 2024-03-27 |
| Language | Llama 3-70B | Language | 7.9e+24 | Meta AI | 2024-04-18 |
| Language | Yi-Large | Language | 1.8e+24 | 01.AI | 2024-05-13 |
| Language | ALLaM 7B | Language | 9.0e+22 | 2024-05-21 | |
| Language | ALLaM adapted 70B | Language | 1.1e+24 | 2024-05-21 | |
| Language | Qwen2-72B | Language | 3.0e+24 | Alibaba | 2024-06-07 |
| Language | Llama-3.1-Nemotron-70B-Instruct | Language | 7.9e+24 | NVIDIA, Meta AI | 2024-06-12 |
| Language | Nemotron-4 340B | Language | 1.8e+25 | NVIDIA | 2024-06-14 |
| Language | DeepSeek-Coder-V2 236B | Language | 1.3e+24 | DeepSeek | 2024-06-17 |
| Language | Llama 3.1-405B | Language | 3.8e+25 | Meta AI | 2024-07-23 |
| Language | Mistral Large 2 | Language | 2.1e+25 | Mistral AI | 2024-07-24 |
| Language | AFM-server | Language | 4.3e+24 | Apple | 2024-07-29 |
| Language | AFM-on-device | Language | 4.5e+23 | Apple | 2024-07-29 |
| Language | GLM-4-Plus | Language | 3.6e+25 | Zhipu AI | 2024-08-29 |
| Language | DeepSeek-V2.5 | Language | 1.8e+24 | DeepSeek | 2024-09-06 |
| Language | Qwen2.5-32B | Language | 3.5e+24 | Alibaba | 2024-09-17 |
| Language | Qwen2.5 Instruct (72B) | Language | 7.9e+24 | Alibaba | 2024-09-19 |
| Language | Qwen2.5-72B | Language | 7.8e+24 | Alibaba | 2024-09-19 |
| Language | Telechat2-115B | Language | 6.9e+24 | China Telecom | 2024-09-20 |
| Language | Yi-Lightning | Language | 1.5e+24 | 01.AI | 2024-10-18 |
| Language | Doubao-pro | Language | 2.5e+25 | ByteDance | 2024-10-28 |
| Language | Hunyuan-Large | Language | 3.5e+24 | Tencent | 2024-11-06 |
| Language | Llama 3.3 70B | Language | 6.9e+24 | Meta AI | 2024-12-06 |
| Language | EXAONE 3.5 32B | Language | 1.3e+24 | LG AI Research | 2024-12-09 |
| Language | DeepSeek-V3 | Language | 3.4e+24 | DeepSeek | 2024-12-24 |
| Language | DeepSeek-R1 | Language | 4.0e+24 | DeepSeek | 2025-01-20 |
| Language | QwQ-32B | Language | 3.5e+24 | Alibaba | 2025-03-06 |
| Language | EXAONE Deep 32B | Language | 1.3e+24 | LG AI Research | 2025-03-16 |
| Language | Pangu Ultra | Language | 1.1e+25 | Huawei | 2025-04-10 |
| Language | Qwen3-235B-A22B | Language | 4.8e+24 | Alibaba | 2025-04-29 |
| Language | Kimi K2 | Language | 3.0e+24 | Moonshot | 2025-07-11 |
| Language | EXAONE 4.0 (32B) | Language | 2.7e+24 | LG AI Research | 2025-07-15 |
| Language | Qwen3-Coder-480B-A35B | Language | 1.6e+24 | Alibaba | 2025-07-22 |
| Language | GLM 4.5 | Language | 4.4e+24 | Zhipu AI, Tsinghua University | 2025-08-05 |
| Language | gpt-oss-20b | Language | 5.5e+23 | OpenAI | 2025-08-05 |
| Language | gpt-oss-120b | Language | 4.9e+24 | OpenAI | 2025-08-05 |
| Language | Qwen3-Max | Language | 1.5e+25 | Alibaba | 2025-09-05 |
| Vision | Feedforward NN | Vision | 3.5e+14 | 2010-05-13 | |
| Vision | iCCCP | Vision | 1.1e+15 | Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) | 2010-06-13 |
| Vision | Pooling CNN (NORB) | Vision | 1.5e+15 | University of Bonn | 2010-09-15 |
| Vision | Pooling CNN (Caltech 101) | Vision | 1.2e+15 | University of Bonn | 2010-09-15 |
| Vision | Deep Autoencoders | Vision | 3.7e+16 | University of Toronto | 2011-04-29 |
| Vision | High Performance CNN (NORB) | Vision | 2.6e+16 | IDSIA, SUPSI | 2011-07-16 |
| Vision | CNN Committee (MNIST) | Vision | 5.2e+16 | IDSIA | 2011-09-18 |
| Vision | CNN Committee (NIST) | Vision | 2.6e+16 | IDSIA | 2011-09-18 |
| Vision | CNN committee (traffic sign) | Vision | 9.9e+14 | IDSIA | 2011-10-03 |
| Vision | Dropout (CIFAR) | Vision | 4.3e+15 | University of Toronto | 2012-06-03 |
| Vision | Dropout (ImageNet) | Vision | 2.7e+17 | University of Toronto | 2012-06-03 |
| Vision | Dropout (MNIST) | Vision | 6.0e+15 | University of Toronto | 2012-06-03 |
| Vision | Unsupervised High-level Feature Learner | Vision | 6.0e+17 | 2012-07-12 | |
| Vision | AlexNet | Vision | 4.7e+17 | University of Toronto | 2012-09-30 |
| Vision | DNN EM segmentation | Vision | 4.8e+17 | IDSIA, SUPSI | 2012-12-03 |
| Vision | Vision | 2.4e+17 | New York University (NYU) | 2013-08-01 | |
| Vision | Visualizing CNNs | Vision | 5.3e+17 | New York University (NYU) | 2013-11-12 |
| Vision | Image generation | Vision | 4.8e+14 | University of Amsterdam | 2013-12-20 |
| Vision | SPPNet | Vision | 3.4e+18 | 2014-06-18 | |
| Vision | ACF-WIDER | Vision | 7.6e+13 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 2014-07-15 |
| Vision | VGG19 | Vision | 1.1e+19 | University of Oxford | 2014-09-04 |
| Vision | VGG16 | Vision | 1.2e+19 | University of Oxford | 2014-09-04 |
| Vision | GoogLeNet / InceptionV1 | Vision | 1.5e+18 | 2014-09-17 | |
| Vision | TA-CNN | Vision | 1.1e+16 | Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) | 2014-11-29 |
| Vision | Fractional Max-Pooling | Vision | 1.0e+17 | University of Warwick | 2014-12-18 |
| Vision | ADAM (CIFAR-10) | Vision | 6.2e+14 | 2014-12-22 | |
| Vision | MSRA (C, PReLU) | Vision | 2.4e+19 | Microsoft Research | 2015-02-06 |
| Vision | U-Net | Vision | 5.1e+16 | University of Freiburg | 2015-05-18 |
| Vision | DCNN | Vision | 4.8e+17 | University of Maryland, Rutgers University | 2015-08-07 |
| Vision | SAF R-CNN | Vision | 1.2e+19 | 2015-10-28 | |
| Vision | Inception v3 | Vision | 1.0e+20 | Google, University College London (UCL) | 2015-12-02 |
| Vision | ResNet-101 (ImageNet) | Vision | 7.0e+18 | Microsoft | 2015-12-10 |
| Vision | ResNet-152 (ImageNet) | Vision | 1.0e+19 | Microsoft | 2015-12-10 |
| Vision | R-FCN | Vision | 7.2e+17 | Tsinghua University, Microsoft Research | 2016-06-21 |
| Vision | ResNet-200 | Vision | 3.0e+19 | Microsoft Research Asia | 2016-09-17 |
| Vision | Xception | Vision | 4.4e+20 | 2016-10-07 | |
| Vision | NASv3 (CIFAR-10) | Vision | 2.2e+21 | Google Brain | 2016-11-05 |
| Vision | PolyNet | Vision | 6.4e+19 | Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) | 2016-11-17 |
| Vision | HR-ResNet101 | Vision | 7.1e+18 | Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) | 2016-12-13 |
| Vision | EnhanceNet | Vision | 1.3e+17 | Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems | 2016-12-23 |
| Vision | JFT | Vision | 8.4e+20 | 2017-07-10 | |
| Vision | RetinaNet-R101 | Vision | 2.1e+18 | Facebook AI Research | 2017-08-07 |
| Vision | PyramidNet | Vision | 2.3e+15 | 2017-09-06 | |
| Vision | YOLOv3 | Vision | 1.3e+19 | University of Washington | 2018-04-08 |
| Vision | ResNeXt-101 32x48d | Vision | 8.7e+21 | 2018-05-02 | |
| Vision | Big-Little Net | Vision | 2.5e+17 | IBM | 2018-07-10 |
| Vision | AlphaX-1 | Vision | 8.9e+17 | Facebook AI Research, Brown University | 2019-10-02 |
| Vision | Noisy Student (L2) | Vision | 2.6e+22 | Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), Google | 2019-11-11 |
| Vision | Once for All | Vision | 6.2e+20 | 2020-04-29 | |
| Vision | DETR | Vision | 4.0e+20 | 2020-05-26 | |
| Vision | ViT-Huge/14 | Vision | 4.3e+21 | Google Brain, Google Research | 2020-10-22 |
| Vision | DeiT-B | Vision | 7.9e+19 | Meta AI, Sorbonne University | 2021-01-15 |
| Vision | Meta Pseudo Labels | Vision | 4.8e+22 | Google Brain, Google AI | 2021-03-01 |
| Vision | Transformer local-attention (NesT-B) | Vision | 2.4e+19 | Google Cloud, Google Research | 2021-05-26 |
| Vision | ViT-G/14 | Vision | 5.8e+22 | Google Brain, Google Research | 2021-06-08 |
| Vision | CoAtNet | Vision | 4.3e+22 | Google, Google Research, Google Brain | 2021-06-09 |
| Vision | Vision | 7.8e+19 | University of California (UC) Berkeley | 2021-06-11 | |
| Vision | EfficientNetV2-XL | Vision | 9.6e+19 | Google, Google Brain | 2021-06-23 |
| Vision | SEER | Vision | 1.8e+22 | Facebook AI Research, INRIA | 2021-07-29 |
| Vision | YOLOX-X | Vision | 6.3e+20 | Megvii Inc | 2021-08-06 |
| Vision | Masked Autoencoders ViT-H | Vision | 4.6e+20 | Facebook AI Research | 2021-11-11 |
| Vision | Swin Transformer V2 (SwinV2-G) | Vision, Video | 1.1e+21 | Microsoft Research Asia | 2021-11-18 |
| Vision | BASIC-L | Vision | 4.1e+22 | 2021-11-19 | |
| Vision | Florence | Vision | 4.8e+22 | Microsoft | 2021-11-22 |
| Vision | Detic | Vision | 2.3e+19 | Meta AI, University of Texas at Austin | 2022-01-07 |
| Vision | ViT-G (model soup) | Vision | 3.4e+21 | 2022-03-10 | |
| Vision | CoCa | Vision | 7.3e+22 | Google Research | 2022-06-14 |
| Vision | InternImage | Vision | 2.4e+21 | 2022-11-10 | |
| Vision | EVA-01 | Vision | 1.5e+22 | 2022-11-14 | |
| Vision | ViT-22B | Vision | 1.9e+23 | 2023-02-10 | |
| Vision | SigLIP 400M | Vision | 4.9e+21 | Google DeepMind | 2023-03-27 |
| Vision | Segment Anything Model | Vision | 7.8e+21 | Meta AI | 2023-04-05 |
| Vision | DINOv2 | Vision | 7.4e+21 | Facebook AI Research, INRIA | 2023-04-14 |
| Vision | LLaVA-OV-72B | Multimodal, Vision | 3.0e+24 | 2024-08-06 | |
| Vision | Movie Gen Video | Video, Vision | 1.6e+24 | Meta AI | 2024-10-04 |
| Language and Vision | CLIP (ViT L/14@336px) | Multimodal, Vision, Language, Video | 1.0e+22 | OpenAI | 2021-01-05 |
| Language and Vision | M6-T | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 5.5e+21 | Alibaba | 2021-03-05 |
| Language and Vision | ALIGN | Multimodal, Vision, Language | 2.6e+22 | Google Research | 2021-06-11 |
| Language and Vision | Zidong Taichu | Multimodal, Speech, Vision, Language | 8.0e+20 | 2021-08-11 | |
| Language and Vision | NÜWA | 7.2e+21 | Microsoft Research, Peking University | 2021-11-24 | |
| Language and Vision | Flamingo | Multimodal, Vision, Language, Video | 2.2e+23 | DeepMind | 2022-04-29 |
| Language and Vision | BEIT-3 | Multimodal, Vision, Language | 7.0e+19 | Microsoft | 2022-08-22 |
| Language and Vision | PaLI | Language, Vision, Multimodal | 1.7e+23 | 2022-09-14 | |
| Language and Vision | BLIP-2 (Q-Former) | Vision, Language | 1.2e+21 | Salesforce Research | 2023-01-30 |
| Language and Vision | GPT-4 | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 2.1e+25 | OpenAI | 2023-03-15 |
| Language and Vision | LLaVA | Multimodal, Vision, Language | 7.8e+22 | 2023-04-17 | |
| Language and Vision | InstructBLIP | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 1.9e+20 | 2023-05-11 | |
| Language and Vision | ONE-PEACE | Multimodal, Vision, Speech, Language | 1.8e+20 | 2023-05-18 | |
| Language and Vision | PaLI-X | Multimodal, Language, Vision, Video | 5.6e+23 | Google Research | 2023-05-29 |
| Language and Vision | ChatGLM3-6B | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 5.0e+22 | Zhipu AI | 2023-10-27 |
| Language and Vision | LLaVA 1.5 | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 7.8e+22 | 2023-11-05 | |
| Language and Vision | GPT-4 Turbo | 2.2e+25 | OpenAI | 2023-11-06 | |
| Language and Vision | CogVLM-17B | Multimodal, Vision, Language | 6.3e+22 | 2023-11-06 | |
| Language and Vision | Volcano 13B | Language, Multimodal, Vision | 4.6e+22 | 2023-11-13 | |
| Language and Vision | SPHINX (Llama 2 13B) | Vision, Language, Multimodal | 3.0e+22 | 2023-11-13 | |
| Language and Vision | Gemini 1.0 Pro | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 1.8e+24 | Google DeepMind | 2023-12-06 |
| Language and Vision | Gemini 1.0 Ultra | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 5.0e+25 | Google DeepMind | 2023-12-06 |
| Language and Vision | CogAgent | Vision, Language | 6.7e+22 | Tsinghua University, Zhipu AI | 2023-12-14 |
| Language and Vision | Claude 3 Opus | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 1.6e+25 | Anthropic | 2024-03-04 |
| Language and Vision | MM1-30B | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 4.9e+23 | Apple | 2024-03-14 |
| Language and Vision | Reka Core | Multimodal, Language, Vision, Video, Speech | 8.4e+24 | Reka AI | 2024-04-15 |
| Language and Vision | VILA1.5-13B | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 2.3e+21 | 2024-05-03 | |
| Language and Vision | GPT-4o | Multimodal, Language, Audio, Speech, Vision | 3.8e+25 | OpenAI | 2024-05-13 |
| Language and Vision | OpenVLA | Robotics, Vision, Language | 1.1e+23 | 2024-06-13 | |
| Language and Vision | Claude 3.5 Sonnet | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 2.7e+25 | Anthropic | 2024-06-20 |
| Language and Vision | GPT-4o mini | Language, Multimodal, Vision | 7.4e+24 | OpenAI | 2024-07-18 |
| Language and Vision | Grok-2 | Language, Vision, Multimodal | 3.0e+25 | xAI | 2024-08-13 |
| Language and Vision | Llama 3.2 11B | Multimodal, Vision, Language | 5.8e+23 | Meta AI | 2024-09-24 |
| Language and Vision | NVLM-X 72B | Vision, Language | 3.0e+24 | NVIDIA | 2024-10-22 |
| Language and Vision | NVLM-H 72B | Vision, Language | 3.0e+24 | NVIDIA | 2024-10-22 |
| Language and Vision | NVLM-D 72B | Vision, Language | 3.0e+24 | NVIDIA | 2024-10-22 |
| Language and Vision | Amazon Nova Pro | Multimodal, Language, Video, Vision | 6.0e+24 | Amazon | 2024-12-03 |
| Language and Vision | Eagle 2 | Vision, Robotics, Language | 4.7e+22 | 2025-01-20 | |
| Language and Vision | Grok 3 | Language, Vision, Multimodal | 3.5e+26 | xAI | 2025-02-17 |
| Language and Vision | Claude 3.7 Sonnet | Language, Vision, Multimodal | 3.3e+25 | Anthropic | 2025-02-24 |
| Language and Vision | GPT-4.5 | Language, Vision, Multimodal | 2.1e+26 | OpenAI | 2025-02-27 |
| Language and Vision | Llama 4 Scout | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 4.1e+24 | Meta AI | 2025-04-05 |
| Language and Vision | Llama 4 Maverick | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 2.2e+24 | Meta AI | 2025-04-05 |
| Language and Vision | Llama 4 Behemoth (preview) | Multimodal, Language, Vision | 5.2e+25 | Meta AI | 2025-04-05 |
| Language and Vision | Seed1.5-VL | Vision, Language, Multimodal, Video | 1.4e+24 | ByteDance | 2025-05-11 |
| Language and Vision | Grok 4 | Language, Multimodal, Vision, Speech | 5.0e+26 | xAI | 2025-07-09 |
Epoch's work is free to use, distribute, and reproduce provided the source and authors are credited under the Creative Commons BY license.
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